Tower of London

After winning the Battle of Hastings in October 1066, William the Conqueror moved to consolidate his new kingdom. Rather than heading straight to London, he fortified key locations across southern England and cut off London’s supplies by attacking Southwark. Facing isolation and intimidation, London’s leaders surrendered in December 1066 without a fight.

William and his followers launched an ambitious castle-building program, erecting 36 castles. A pivotal one was the Tower of London, constructed in the southeast corner of the old Roman town walls. Initially made of timber, it was replaced with stone, and the iconic White Tower was built around 1078. This imposing stone keep symbolised Norman authority and a royal residence.

The Tower wasn’t just a fortress; it also housed political prisoners like Bishop Ranulf Flambard, the first to escape its walls. Over time, it served as a refuge for London’s Jewish community, who, despite royal protection, faced threats.

The death of King Henry I in 1135 sparked a succession crisis, making control of the Tower crucial. Geoffrey de Mandeville, the Tower’s Constable, played both sides in the conflict between Stephen of Blois and Empress Matilda, boosting his power. His eventual arrest marked the shift of the Constable’s role from hereditary to appointed under royal authority. Throughout medieval England, the Tower remained a key political and military stronghold.

The Tower retained its basic form from around 1100 until Richard I’s reign (1189–1199). During Richard’s absence on the crusade, his Lord Chancellor, William Longchamp, expanded the castle with a moat and additional fortifications. In 1191, the Tower endured its first siege when Longchamp surrendered after three days.

King John faced a baronial revolt, leading to the Tower’s siege in 1214 by Robert Fitzwalter. The Tower held out until John signed the Magna Carta. Despite ongoing unrest and an attempt by Prince Louis of France to claim the English throne, the Tower remained under baronial control until John died in 1216, after which many pledged loyalty to his son, Henry III.

Henry III and Edward I expanded the Tower in the 13th century, shaping much of its current appearance. Henry invested heavily in security and comfort, including whitewashing the White Tower and adding new towers and a defensive ditch. Despite its grandeur, the Tower symbolized royal oppression, causing local unrest.

During Henry III’s reign, the Tower served as a stronghold and hosted parliament twice in 1236 and 1261. In 1261, Henry sought refuge in the Tower amid a power struggle, negotiating a truce with the barons. Henry regained control and restored peace after winning the Battle of Evesham in 1265.

Edward I (1272–1307) further fortified the Tower with a new curtain wall, moat, and fortified entrances, making it even more formidable. His renovations, costing £21,000, included watermills for self-sufficiency. This period also saw the persecution of Jews, leading to their expulsion in 1290.

Edward III (1312–1377) revitalized the Tower, using it to imprison notable captives, including French and Scottish kings. Richard II (1377–1399) faced turmoil during the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 when rebels stormed the Tower, looted it, and beheaded the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Wars of the Roses brought further violence, including the 1471 capture of the Tower by Edward IV’s forces, where Henry VI was likely murdered.

After Edward IV died in 1483, his young sons, Edward V and Richard, were taken to the Tower for protection. Their uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, declared himself King Richard III. The princes disappeared by the summer, and though believed murdered, definitive proof remains elusive. In 1674, bones thought to be theirs were found near the White Tower, adding to the mystery.

The Tower gradually shifted from being a royal residence to a prison and fortress. By Henry VIII’s reign, its royal accommodations had declined, and it became infamous as a prison, housing figures like Anne Boleyn and Sir Walter Raleigh. While its dark reputation for torture persists, such practices were infrequent. The rack, introduced in the 15th century, was among the few torture devices used.

During the English Civil War, Parliamentarian forces seized the Tower in 1642. It remained under their control throughout the conflict. By the 18th century, its military relevance waned, with outdated defences and a drained moat. The Duke of Wellington drained the moat in 1845 after a health scare from contaminated water.

By the 19th century, the Tower’s role as a royal fortress had faded but remained central to military and ceremonial life. It housed the Board of Ordnance until 1855 and saw limited fortifications added during political unrest. During the world wars of the 20th century, the Tower returned to its role as a prison, with the last execution in 1941.

Today, managed by Historic Royal Palaces, the Tower of London is a significant tourist attraction. It houses the Crown Jewels and symbolises British history and tradition. With its famous ravens and the Yeoman Warders performing the nightly Ceremony of the Keys, it continues to captivate visitors.